De Re Militari is a collection of manuscripts written around the 5th century by Flavius Vegetius Renatus. The manuscript covers numerous military topics, including leadership, training, discipline, tactics, and more. The four-book manuscript was incredibly popular throughout its time and well into the Middle Ages. In fact, even today, military scholars find value in De Re Militari. But could it benefit a fencing master like the ones who authored some of the foundational manuscripts of HEMA?

Today, come along on my journey as I highlight some key takeaways from De Re Militari through the lens of a High Medieval fencing master. What lessons would I apply if I were paid to train people for judicial duels? I will be using the 2019 translation of Vegetius’ work edited by Harper-McLaughlin Adet, which includes all four books, so come along as we explore this interesting topic!

Before we can begin exploring the manuscript, it is critical that I set the stage for the lens through which we will read. I will be reading this book as if I were a fencing master paid to train people for judicial duels, similar to Fiore dei Liberi or Hans Talhoffer. I will also assume I am following the judicial duel bylaws as described in the Saxon Mirror, which provide a period of time to work with a client before their duel.
​
I will also not be exploring the value of this manuscript from a general combat perspective or a knightly one. After all, the popularity of this manuscript throughout history speaks for itself in its military value.
So enjoy this fictional tale of notes from a High Medieval fencing master decomposing De Re Militari for application to his profession!

Vegetius opens his work with “The Selection and Training of New Levies” and focuses on what makes good soldiers. Right off the bat, we have our first piece of sage wisdom: “Achieving victory in war does not depend entirely upon numbers or simple courage; only skill and discipline will ensure it.” Fortunately for me, in nearly all judicial duels, at least in the Holy Roman Empire, I will not need to worry about numerical disadvantages. However, the success of my pupils is a direct reflection of my tutelage. If I am going to take a client, I am going to want to ensure that they have the potential to win. After all, you never hear the other fencing masters bragging about the clients they trained who lost, but the people of the towns certainly know. Based on Vegetius’ advice, I will focus my efforts on clients who show skill and discipline. Only they will be worth dedicating my time to.

Along with skill and discipline, the client's physique must also be considered. While weapons may equalize some parts of a fight, there are still physical advantages some may have over others. Vegetius says that quality recruits “have a lively eye, should carry his head erect, his chest should be broad, his shoulders muscular and brawny, his fingers long, his arms strong, his waist small, his shape easy, his legs and feet rather nervous than fleshy.” Before I take a client to train them for their duel, I should gauge their physical attributes to see if they have precursors of qualities that Vegetius highlights.

Vegetius also describes professions of levies that should be avoided. Interestingly, people like fishermen and bird hunters are to be omitted from service. This is certainly something I should keep an eye on. Afterall, how one makes their money may reflect some of the skills and discipline they have.

Another interesting idea is the concept of not giving someone a military mark until they have proven worthy. As Vegetius puts it, “Because many, though promising enough in appearance, are found very unfit upon trial.” Maybe I should test my clients before I sign any contracts to work with them. Just because they look to be quality, does not mean they have the mindset required to thrive in a duel.

Points of emphasis are made on the initial training to exercise daily, to run, and to swim (weather permitting).  These are all good aspects that I should incorporate into my curriculum for preparing my clients. It does them no good to know how to swing a sword if they do not have the heart and lungs for the activity.

A fascinating detail that Vegetius makes is on the use of round shields and wooden swords that are twice as heavy as the ones they would be using. He even goes on to explain how training with the pell with these heavier tools is good for soldiers and gladiators. What are my clients if not the contemporary equivalent of the Roman Gladiator?
​
Curiously, Vegetius says to teach the thrust over the cut with the sword. He highlights that the Romans mocked those who trained to use the edge of the sword and that a cut delivered even with force hardly kills. There is certainly some truth in that a thrust is more likely to end a duel, but is a maiming blow with a sword, not just as valuable in a duel? I know some masters who emphasize the cut while others emphasize the thrust. For me, it depends on the weapon and the style in which my opponent is deploying against me.

This book covers the establishment and organization of a legion. Vegetius even explores the difference between the Roman legions and the Auxiliaries they deployed. If I were to be employed as a captain of a guard or even lead my own Condottieri division, I could see great value in this book of Vegetius. However, most of this book does not seem applicable to training my clients.
​
However, Book II does include an entire section on the drilling of troops that I find fascinating. Vegetius advises training troops in the morning and afternoon, and highlights training with a wooden sword. Troops are to train against “imaginary antagonists on all sides and to aim at the sides, feet, or head, both with the point and edge of the sword.” It is true that I must prep my client for all sorts of scenarios before they enter their duel. You never know what an opponent may deploy against you, so prepping accordingly is critical.

This book is all about dispositions for action and includes things like the size of an army, encamping armies, crossing rivers, and more. One of these sections covers “Means of Preserving It in Health”. It goes without saying that a proper diet for my client and myself is a cornerstone of success. A fantastic quote from Vegetius is “…Little can be expected from men who have both the enemy and diseases to struggle with.” I must ensure my client is eating well. I should familiarize myself with the four humors if I am to better monitor my client’s health while I am under contract with them.

“It is essential to know the character of the enemy and of their principal officers…” Well said, Vegetius! Training my client in martial combat for their duel is not the only way I can help prepare them. It should be easy enough to learn about the opponent they will face. After all, this is a judicial duel and legalities in the proceedings. However, I should invest in learning who they hired to train them for this duel. If I know my client’s opponent and who is training them, I may be able to focus my client’s training on techniques and tactics their opponent will deploy. Discretion in this matter is of the utmost important. I can only imagine what it might do to my reputation if another Fencing Master knew I was gathering information on them or their client...

Venetius also makes a point to say we should learn from others. I think this is an excellent idea to improve my own technique and what I can share with my clients. I have heard tales of some fencing masters who traveled great distances, and at great expense to themselves, to learn from various masters to hone their skills. This is something I should do as well. It is always good to get other perspectives on my trade.
​
Finally, Book III includes the statement that “men must be sufficiently tried before they are led against the enemy.” It is my duty as their fencing master to test them and hone their skills. I do not want them to encounter a technique they have not seen before in their duel when it matters most. I must add variety and creativity to what I train my clients in order to maximize their chances of success.

​The last book of De Re Militari discusses defenses, sieges, and naval warfare. In truth, I did not find much value in this book in regard to its application to judicial dueling. However, I did come across a word I liked the sound of: Obsessi. It is the Latin word for siege. It has a nice ring to it, and I may name a category of techniques after it…

There is so much we can learn from contemporary manuscripts about our normal fencing sources. De Re Militari was almost certainly read by some of the minds behind our sources, given its popularity, and it was fun to try to view the work through a lens it may not have been intended for.
​
I hope you enjoyed this fun little exercise in diving into the mind of a fencing master and what they might consider important when prepping someone for a duel!

This month, Danial, Ash, and myself had the wonderful opportunity to do another sword and history demonstration at Uhuburg Castle. For this show, we create an epic journey back to the heart of medieval Italy as we dive into the fascinating world of the Condettieri! In this demonstration, we unpacked the lives and legacies of iconic mercenary leaders like John Hawkwood and Galeazzo da Montova and explore how these figures relate to the tradition of Historical European Martial Arts. Posted above is one of our shows.

The show began with us introducing the concept of Condettieri and the Italian landscape that allowed them to thrive. We then explored specific characters and their relation to duels which was used as a springboard to introduce the audience to Fiore dei Liberi.

These shows are always such a blast to do because we get to make history fun and engaging. After the show, we bring people to our table to show them different manuscripts and let them handle our training swords so they can feel what swords felt like.

As always, a huge thank you to the staff at Uhuburg Castle. They are so inviting and friendly and our show would not be possible without their hospitality. Thank you also do Danial and Ash for another successful show!

Credit to Ashley White for the Steller photography of the event!

The Flower of Battle: MS Ludwig XV13
​Flowers of Battle: The Complete Martial Works of Fiore Dei Liberi
The rise and fall of Italy’s warriors-for-hire - Stephanie Honchell Smith
The Golden Age of Mercenary Companies
Galeazzo Da Montova Activity
Captain of Fortune: Galeazzo Da Montova
Condottiere 1300–1500: Infamous medieval mercenaries (Warrior, 115)​
John Hawkwood: An English Mercenary in Fourteenth-Century Italy

This week, I had the wonderful opportunity to present a research paper at the Saint Louis University History Symposium. My paper was on clerical combatants of the thirteenth century and how they relate to I.33. It explored clerical involvement in judicial duels and warfare while also highlighting the duality of the imperial law and culture of the Holy Roman Empire and the papal law of the Vatican.

Fortunately, the university graciously let me record my presentation and share my research with you! So, without further ado, let's dive into Clerical Combatants of the Thirteenth Century!

​The thirteenth century was a time fraught with strife that saw numerous factions, particularly the Roman Catholic Papacy, partake in armed conflict. The Holy Roman Empire featured numerous landowning clerics and religious institutions arming themselves and participating in conflicts over land, power, influence, and matters of faith. Clerical combatants required training which led to the creation of instructional manuscripts such as Fecht 1. This paper will explore the world surrounding thirteenth century clerical combatants, particularly in the Holy Roman Empire, to provide more historical, social, and cultural context to better understand why an instructional manuscript on sword fighting may have been created in the early fourteenth century by the clergy.

Fecht 1 was produced around the early fourteenth century and contains a systematic approach to the use of a sword paired with a buckler, a small shield held in with a center-grip of generally no more than 20 inches. This weapon pairing was common between the thirteenth century and sixteenth century for personal defense and was seen in sporting, personal-defense, and battlefield application. the written text of Fecht 1 primarily contain Latin vocabulary supported by German terminology in fencing techniques, highlighting the German origins of the manuscript. The images in the manuscript depict a priest, a scholar, and a female fencer named Walpurgis, as characters to assist in the instruction of the techniques with the sword and the buckler. 

Unfortunately, the author of the manuscript is unknown. Fecht 1 references someone named Lutegerus in one verse but not in a definitive enough way to indicate that they are the swordsman behind the manuscript. Modern scholars of Fecht 1 such as Jeffrey Forgeng suggest that a community of secular clerics were the origin of this manuscript based on the inclusion of a clerical character in civilian clothing and the inclusion of a female fencer (Forgeng, Origin, 2018). The manuscript was also looted from a monastery in the mid-sixteenth century by Johannes Herbart von Würzburg during the Franconian Campaigns of Albrecht Ⅱ which possibly indicates a Franconian monastic origin.

Fecht 1 refers to clerici as a source for advanced techniques performed compared to common techniques which provides further compelling evidence of clerical origins of the system presented in the manuscript. The manuscript is written as a set of instructions that indicates what a fencer should do if they are taught by the priest, a character of the manuscript. Fecht 1 also makes a point to separate the ordinary fencer from the one trained by the priest to indicate where specific techniques are being performed instead of what is perceived to be common techniques. 

Fecht 1 further elaborates on the concept of advanced techniques compared to common techniques in the opening pages stating, “These seven parts are used by ordinary combatants; the cleric holds the opposite, and Luitger holds the middle” (Royal Armouries, 1300-1320). According to the manuscript, the seven parts likely refer to the seven custodia or guards that all fencers use. The opposite likely refers to the obsessio, specific techniques used to counter the common fencers. The middle is held by Luitger may be a blending of both the common and the clerical techniques.

 Of note is the claim that the cleric holds the opposite. This frames what the manuscript separates as special techniques owned by the cleric, designed to oppose those practiced by the common fencer. As with many martial arts, it is unlikely these techniques were invented in a vacuum. Instead, these methods were likely learned and passed down from previous generations of swordsmen, and formally recorded in Fecht 1. 
​
It is not clear whether Fecht 1 is capturing techniques for self-defense, judicial dueling, or larger conflict due to the techniques being demonstrated between a priest and his students. However, the lethal intent of the technique is evident in the manuscript. Numerous techniques in the manuscript include the use of a thrust which is particularly deadly. Even in later centuries with more advanced medical practices, surgeons documented the lethality of thrusts and the difficulty in preventing death when fencers received such wounds (Ravaton, 1768). Further evidence on the manuscript’s lethal intent can be found in advice such as “you should enter with a thrust without mercy” which indicates that the technique is executed without mercy for their opponent (Royal Armouries, 1300-1320). This would support the use of Fecht 1’s techniques with varying degrees of success in lethal engagements such as trial by combat, self-defense, and war.

While Fecht 1 stands out as being the earliest known manuscript about instructional martial arts, it is just one manuscript of a much larger collection of fechtbücher. Other Germanic examples such as the MS 3227a written in the late fourteenth to early fifteenth century also include instructions on the use of weapons similarly to Fecht 1(Liechtenauer, Döbringer, Marcus, & Graecus, 1400s). One common source of Germanic fechtbücher comes from the tradition of trial by combat. (Marsden, 2016). However, this form of combat and the church’s involvement was contested between the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy.

The Sachsenspiegal was an influential German law book first written around 1220 and widely distributed across the Holy Roman Empire throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth Century (Library of Congress, 2023). It described a judicial duel format in which the participants could wear any amount of linen and leather while leaving their feet and head bare in the front. The weapons they were allowed to use included a sword and a round shield made of leather or wood similarly to what is depicted in Fecht 1 (Wolfenbüttel, 1358-62). However, while Germans were partaking in this practice, clerics has another source of regulations to manage.
Clerical reforms of the late twelfth century aimed at reigning in clerics, their conduct, and their involvement with secular judges. A canon of The Third Lateran Council in 1179 declared that a cleric should not become a legal advocate in matters before a secular judge, “unless they happen to be defending their own case or that of their church, or acting on behalf of the helpless who cannot conduct their own cases” (Council Fathers, 1179). This canon would create an environment that would allow clerics to be involved with trial by combat for their own defense, defense of the church, or helping one that cannot conduct their own defense. However, in the early thirteenth century, the Papacy formally established their position on the matter of trial by combat in the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The eighteenth constitution from the Fourth Lateran Council that stated “Clerics to dissociate from shedding-blood” (Council Fathers, 1215). This constitution would be in direct conflict to the secular laws regarding trial by combat and clerical participation with such judicial rulings. However, the canon laws of the third and fourth Lateran Councils had mixed results on reducing German clerics’ involvement with trial by combat. 

Shortly after the Fourth Lateran Council’s conclusion, a duel took place in the cathedral courtyard of Cologne witnessed by the count, the bishop, and other clerical dignitaries. (Kellett, 2012). Another trial by combat occurred in 1251 in Gent which occurred in the courtyard of St. Bavo’s Cathedral which was the seat of the diocese at the time (Kellett, 2012). Furthermore, in Hans Talhoffer’s 1459 CE manuscript, he describes conditions where one must defend their honor in a duel (Talhoffer, 1459). Most noteworthy is Talhoffer’s inclusion of techniques for the Franconian, a group largely governed by a Prince-Bishop, tradition of mace and club dueling (Elema, 2019). Based on Talhoffer’s work, it would seem that some Prince-Bishoprics were still allowing forms of trial by combat which could create an environment where the clergy could find themselves in judicial duels.

 While Fecht 1 being specifically intended for judicial dueling has been disputed, there is no doubt that a system instructing a combatant on specific techniques for combat against one other opponent with a like weapon would be a usable system for judicial combat. This is further highlighted by the relation of Fecht 1’s instruction of the sword and the buckler and the description of a common dueling format in the Sachsenspiegal. Regardless of Fecht 1’s deliberate use case for trial by combat, it is not the only manuscript connecting the clergy to the instruction of martial arts.
​
In later centuries after the creation of Fecht 1, there are numerous clergy members associated to other traditions in swordsmanship. The Lichtenauer tradition, a Germanic fencing system dating back to the early fourteenth century, features a fencing masters named Hanko Döbringer who is said to be a priest (Cod.HS.3227a, 1389). Later in 1491, a priest by the name of Hans Leckuchner would produce a manuscript involving the use of a messer (Lekuchner, 1491). Like many manuscripts of the German Fechtbuch tradition, the techniques involve fencers dueling like what is seen in Fecht 1. While the weapons are different, the fact that clerics of the Holy Roman Empire were still involved with swordsmanship in later centuries adds credibility to the idea that Fecht 1 was just one example of techniques learned clerical combatants. However, clerical association to combat was not relegated to just the academic setting of fechtbucher.

The clergy’s involvement in war and conflict was nothing new in the time of Fecht 1’s creation. Clerical combatants had been participants in war throughout the centuries prior to the creation of Fecht 1 including famously Bishop Odo of Bayeux in the Bayeux Tapestry (Tapestry, Eleventh Century). However, what was new in the thirteenth century was the church’s codification of warfare and self-defense.

The twelfth century saw the church embracing new philosophies regarding Christianity and its relation to self-defense and justified warfare. The Decretum Gratiani compiled by Gratian made the case that the right to self-defense was grounded in natural law while the right to wage war was grounded in the law of nations (Law Explorer, 2015). By the thirteenth century, the church’s acceptance of self-defense and just war was solidified by the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX which emphasized the importance of the Decretum Gratiani within the papacy (Reno, 2011)
​
This, along with the Fourth Lateran Council's call for new crusades, highlights the church's institutionalization of combat and warfare in the thirteenth century. Armed conflict is one of the potential use case for Fecht 1 given how common the pairing of a sword and a buckler was in the thirteenth and fourteenth century. It is just as likely that the environment of church-sponsored violence emphasized the need for the clergy to defend themselves. Furthermore, some clergy found themselves in unique situations to lead armies and function as nobility alongside their churchly duties.

​By the 1300s, centuries had passed where bishops and abbots were seen on the battlefield in the service of royal armies (Friend, 2015). This site was not unique to Germanic kingdoms either. However, the Prince-Bishoprics involvement in the Holy Roman Empire’s political struggles gave many of the Prince-Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire military obligations, whether for imperial service or for protecting and expanding their own borders. 

Furthermore, with the military activity seen by the heads of both spiritual jurisdiction and temporal authority of their territories, it is even possible that bishops bolstered their knightly ranks by inducting their knights into minor clerical orders to serve both administrative duties and military duties in their prince-bishoprics. While not German, one of the most famous knights who held minor clerical orders was Jacques le Gris of the infamous Last Duel of 1386 (Jager, 2004). A Prince-Bishop’s control of the land and early universities provided a plethora of ways to draw from clerical sources to maintain their control over their land. Conflicts such as peasant uprisings, and the defense or expansion of territory required military force, which prince-bishops had to manage just as much as any other feudal lord of the century (Arnold, 1989). 

For example, In 1213, a battle between the forces of Henry, duke of Brabant and Hugh of Pierrepoint, bishop of Liege, took place over a land dispute brought on by the passing of a noble without a son (Richard, 2000). Hugh of Pierrepoint rallied his army and his allies to counter a raid conducted by the duke of Brabant which resulted in the bishop successfully repelling the raid and protecting his land. After the battle was won and the Brabant dukes army was fleeing, the bishop’s army pursued, killing many while the wounded were mutilated and no quarter was given (Schnerb, 2010). 
​
Clerics of the thirteenth century were involved in more than just territorial disputes for their Prince-Bishoprics. Clerics participated in warfare in Padua, an Italian city part of the Holy Roman Empire at the time, during a dispute between the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy. In 1237, Padua was captured by Ezelino III Da Romano in the name of the emperor and for twenty years, ruled over with an iron fist. 1257, lord Gregorio, the patriarch of the Holy See of Aquileia and sponsored by Pope Alexander III, led part of the army to siege Padua and liberate the city from Ezelino III Da Romano (Patavino, 1262). In this example, bishops (or the higher-ranking Patriarch) are called upon by the church to partake in military actions against other nobles in the Holy Roman Empire. This not only highlights the value that the church places on clerical combatants, but also the church’s investment in the affairs of the Holy Roman Empire that results in armed conflict.

If conflict at home was not concerning enough for the thirteenth century imperial clergy, numerous crusades occurred throughout the thirteenth century. This gave clerics opportunities to partake in military roles with the rise of religious military orders as well as service to their local nobility. It also created the situation where clerics may find themselves in military conflict even if they were in traditionally non-combat roles such as Papal Legates.
​
Non-clerical individuals in the thirteenth century also found themselves with a unique path to earning the title of cleric. Religious Military Orders were sponsored by the church, which granted clerical status to individuals of these orders. While many of these orders started with humble beginnings, like protecting pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land or establishing hospitals, their use as a military force was quickly recognized as a helpful tool for medieval Christendom. Members of the Holy Roman Empire need not look further than the Teutonic Order.

In March of 1198, the Papacy formally recognized the Fratres Domus Hospitalis Sancae Mariae (Brethren of the German Hospital of St Mary), which would later be known as the Teutonic Order (Nicolle, 2007). By 1221, they were officially recognized as an independent internal order. he largely German religious, military order saw combat ranging from the Crusades to the Baltic regions in the thirteenth Century. The order even established an independent kingdom in the conquered Baltic region for a time with its unique style of rule in the region. The order was led by a council-elected Hochmeister (Grand Master), with provinces governed by lower-level landmeisters (Cartwright, 2018). Generally, the Ritter (Knights) came from aristocratic German families, while German settlers were allowed to join the order but typically served as priests or half-brethren (halb-brüder) (Cartwright, 2018). 

One major areas of conflict the Teutonic Order participated in during the thirteenth Century were the Baltic Crusades. These Crusades, taking place between the 12th and 15th centuries, aimed at converting non-Christians in Prussia, Livonia (modern Estonia) and Lithuania to Christianity while also reducing the number of raids into Holy Roman Empire territory. 

Much of the Baltic Campaigns military activity can be found in the Rhyme Chronicle of Livonia, written around the end of the thirteenth Century by an anonymous author likely associated with the Teutonic Order (The Rhyme Chronicle of Livonia, Late 13th Century). The manuscript collects numerous accounts of war from sieges to raids to battles that all took place in the thirteenth Century during this campaign. One example of a Baltic Crusades battle took place In 1242 where the Teutonic Order received one of their greatest losses in the Baltic Crusades. The Ice Slaughter, taking place on the frozen Lake Peipus, featured two fairly even armies with the Bishop of Dorpat contributing around 300 knights and 1,000 Estonians to the Teutonic Order (Heath, 1989). The Russians ultimately prevailed with more than 400 Germans killed though the Rhyme Chronicle of Livonia estimates higher losses (Heath, 1989).

This paper does not intend to conclude that Fecht 1 originates from a Prince-Bishop or a military order like the Teutonic Knights. While the manuscript was looted from a Franconian monastery in the 16th Century, there is no definitive evidence to link it to the prince-bishopric of Franconia (Forgeng, History of the Manuscript, 2018). Furthermore, the clothing style in the manuscript matches neither the knightly garb nor the half-brethren garb of the Teutonic Order. It also does not include the insignia of prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire.
​
Instead, this paper aims to show that Fecht 1is a byproduct of the relation between the clergy and conflict in the thirteenth century. From studying the history of clerical combatants of the Holy Roman Empire, many clerics, especially those with aspirations of knightly ranks, would need martial training. Dr. Forgeng’s hypothesis that the manuscript originates from secular clerics associated with a cathedral does seem plausible. If the origins of the Fecht 1 techniques are clerical, then the methods that are captured in Fecht 1 likely derive from personal experiences of clerical combatants from the thirteenth Century. It is also possible that the techniques from Fecht 1 originated came from other martial combat of the time and were purchased through employment or enrollment with a cathedral-like establishment to better train the future clerical combatants of the fourteenth century.

Cod.HS.3227a. (1389). (D. Lindholm, Trans.) Retrieved from https://www.hroarr.com/manuals/liechtenauer/Dobringer_A5_sidebyside.pdf

Council Fathers. (1179). Third Lateran Council. (P. E. Online, Trans.) Retrieved from Papal Encyclicals: https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum11.htm
​
Council Fathers. (1215). Fourth Lateran Council. Retrieved from Papal Encyclicals Online: https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum12-2.htm#66

Dresden, S. S. (1350). Dresdner Sachsenspiegel. Retrieved from http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id272362328

Gunterrodt, H. v. (1579). De Veris Principiis Artis Dimicatoriae. Wittemberg: Matthaeus Welack.

II, F. (1231). Frederick II: Statute in Favor of the Princes, 1231. Retrieved from Fordham University: https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/fred2-princes.asp

Lekuchner, H. (1491). The Art of Swordsmanship. (J. L. Forgeng, Trans.)

Liechtenauer, J., Döbringer, H., Marcus, & Graecus. (1400s). Hs 3227 a. Retrieved from https://dlib.gnm.de/item/Hs3227a/html

Patavino, R. (1262). The Chronicles of the Trevisan March. (J. R. Berrigan, Trans.)

Reno, E. (2011). The Authoritative Text: Raymond of Penyafort's Editing of the 'Decretals of Gregory IX' (1234). RetrievedfromColumbiaAcademicCommons: https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8PK0P3Q#:~:text=The%20Decretals%20of%20Gregory%20IX,institution%20within%20medieval%20European%20society

Royal Armouries. (1300-1320). Fecht 1. (J. L. Forgeng, Trans.)

The Rhyme Chronicle of Livonia. (Late thirteenth Century). (A. R. Mullen, Trans.) Retrieved from https://deremilitari.org/2016/09/descriptions-of-warfare-in-the-rhyme-chronicle-of-livonia/
Wolfenbüttel, H. A. (1358-62). Book I. In unknown, Wolfenbuttel Manuscript (M. Dobozy, Trans.).
 

Arnold, B. (1989). German Bishops and their Military. German History Vol. 7 No. 2 , 162-183. Retrieved from https://deremilitari.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/arnold.pdf

Barrow, J. (2015). Bishops and cathedrals. In J. Barrow, The Clergy in the Medieval World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cartwright, M. (2018, July 11). Teutonic Knight. Retrieved from World History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/Teutonic_Knight/

Forgeng, J. L. (2018). History of the Manuscript. In J. L. Forgeng, The Medieval Art of Swordsmanship (p. 7). Leeds: Royal Armouries Museum.

Forgeng, J. L. (2018). Origin. In J. L. Forgeng, The Medieval Art of Swordsmanship. Leeds: Royal Armouries Museum.

Friend, N. E. (2015). Holy Warriors and Bellicose Bishops: The Chur arriors and Bellicose Bishops: The Church and W ch and Warfare in. San Jose: San Jose State University.

Heath, I. (1989). Armies of Fuedal Europe 1066-1300. Wargames Research Group.

History Maps. (2023). GREAT INTERREGNUM. Retrieved from History Maps: https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany/event/Great-Interregnum

Jager, E. (2004). The Last Duel. New York: Broadway Books.

Kellett, R. E. (2012). ROYAL ARMOURIES MS I.33: THE JUDICIAL COMBAT AND THE ART OF FENCING IN THIRTEENTH- AND FOURTEENTH-CENTURY GERMAN LITERATURE. Oxford German Studies, 32-56.

Law Explorer. (2015, December 7). The Rights of Self-Defence and Justified Warfare in the Writings of the Twelfth- and Thirteenth-Century Canonists. Retrieved from Law Explorer: https://lawexplores.com/the-rights-of-self-defence-and-justified-warfare-in-the-writings-of-the-twelfth-and-thirteenth-century-canonists/

Library of Congress. (2023). Mirror of the Saxons. Retrieved from Library of Congress: https://www.loc.gov/item/2021667916

Marsden, R. (2016). Historical European Martial Arts In Its Context. Tyrant Industries.

Nicolle, D. (2007). Teutonic Knight 1190-1561. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.

Patavino, R. (1262). The Chronicles of the Trevisan March. (J. R. Berrigan, Trans.)

Schnerb, B. (2010). Battle of Steppes. In C. J. Rogers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Oxford University Press.

Skoda, H. (2021, October 15). Medieval trial by combat: the real history behind The Last Duel. Retrieved from History Extra: https://www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/medieval-trial-by-combat-real-history-behind-last-duel/

Tikkanen, A. (2023). Concordat of Worms. Retrieved from Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/event/Concordat-of-Worms